vaccine adjuvant is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Updated 2026-02-02. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
20世纪70年代，研究者从胸腺提取物中纯化出多种小肽，Tα1是其中被较早表征的一种。最初的制备依赖组织匀浆和层析步骤，产量低且成分复杂。随着固相肽合成技术成熟，实验室和工业界能够生产与天然序列一致的合成版本。合成肽的纯度可达95%以上，并可通过反相高效液相色谱和质谱进行鉴定。这一转变使研究不再依赖动物胸腺来源。
市售的胸腺素α1通常以冻干粉形式提供，溶解后用于注射。其氨基酸组成包括多个酸性残基，因此在中性pH下带负电荷。该肽可溶于水和生理盐水，但在有机溶剂中溶解度有限。储存条件通常为冻干状态下负20摄氏度，溶解后需冷藏并避免反复冻融。常见的同义词包括胸腺肽α1、thymalfasin和Tα1。
胸腺素α1（thymosin alpha 1，Tα1）是一种由28个氨基酸组成的酸性肽，N端被乙酰化，分子量约为3108道尔顿。该肽最早从牛胸腺组织提取物中分离，属于胸腺素组分5的一个成分。其序列在不同哺乳动物中高度保守，提示其具有基本的生物学功能。名称中的“α1”指其在电泳中的迁移位置，并非表示亚型编号。它既存在于胸腺，也存在于脾脏和淋巴结等免疫组织。
Thymosin alpha 1 is approved as a medicine in several countries, including Italy and China, for indications such as chronic hepatitis B and as an immune adjuvant. It is not approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration as a therapeutic product. In research settings the peptide appears in studies of sepsis, vaccine response, and oncology support, often with mixed or inconclusive results. The evidence base is uneven, and reviews note that many trials were small. Regulatory status therefore differs widely between jurisdictions.
Thymosin alpha 1 is a synthetic 28-amino-acid peptide first isolated in 1966 from thymosin fraction 5, a bovine thymus extract. Its chain begins with an acetylated serine residue and ends with asparagine. The native peptide carries a molecular mass near 3,108 daltons. Researchers classify it as an immunomodulatory agent rather than a hormone with a single endocrine target. Early work framed it as a thymus-derived factor that supports T-cell maturation. The synthetic form used in research and clinical products matches the natural sequence.
Immune signaling studies link thymosin alpha 1 to Toll-like receptor pathways, particularly TLR2 and TLR9, on dendritic cells and other antigen-presenting cells. Activation of these receptors promotes maturation of T cells and increases natural killer cell activity. The peptide shifts cytokine output toward a T helper 1 profile, raising interferon gamma and interleukin 2 while modulating interleukin 10. Whether these effects translate into clinical benefit for any specific disease remains a subject of debate. Reported outcomes vary across trials and populations.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 化学分类 | 线性肽 | 由28个氨基酸组成 |
| 分子量 | 约3108 Da | 合成版本一致 |
| 外观 | 白色至类白色粉末 | 冻干品 |
| 溶解度 | 易溶于水 | 微溶于有机溶剂 |
| 储存温度 | -20°C（冻干） | 溶解后2-8°C |
The peptide was identified during work in the 1970s on thymosin fraction 5, a partially purified extract of calf thymus. Investigators separated that mixture and characterized individual components, one of which they named thymosin alpha-1. The same compound later received the international nonproprietary name thymalfasin. Commercial material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than by extraction, so synthetic and natural forms share an identical sequence. Naming conventions vary across the literature, and readers should distinguish the alpha-1 peptide from other thymosins that have unrelated sequences and functions.
Thymosin beta-4 is a separate 43-residue peptide that binds actin and participates in cell migration; it shares no sequence similarity with thymosin alpha-1 despite the common family name. Other preparative materials, such as thymosin fraction 5 and thymopoietin, contain distinct mixtures or peptides. The shared thymosin label reflects the tissue of origin used in early purification, not a common structural core. Treating these molecules as interchangeable is a frequent source of confusion in laboratory reports and in popular summaries alike.
Overall evidence quality varies considerably. A large share of published reports come from single centers, rely on surrogate immunological markers, or lack adequate control groups. Systematic reviews have highlighted this heterogeneity as a barrier to pooling results. Open questions include which patients, if any, might benefit, what treatment duration is appropriate, and whether any effect is independent of standard care. The peptide is often described as an immune modulator rather than a therapy for one disease, which complicates confirmatory trial design.
Thymosin alpha 1 was identified in 1977 as a component of thymosin fraction 5, a heterogeneous preparation used in early studies of thymic function. Investigators purified the active material and determined its amino acid sequence, which enabled chemical synthesis. Work in the following decades concentrated on T-cell maturation and immune reconstitution in animals and small human cohorts. Early preparations varied in composition, so results from that period are difficult to compare with studies using defined synthetic peptide.
Biologically, the peptide is studied mainly in the context of immune cell development and regulation. It is produced in the thymus and in several other tissues, and it appears to influence the maturation and activity of T cells and other immune populations. Laboratory work describes effects on cytokine production, on the balance between T cell subsets, and on the function of dendritic cells. Much of this evidence comes from cell culture and animal models, so the extent to which the same pathways operate in humans remains an open question.
Clinical interest has centered on chronic viral hepatitis, on immune restoration in various conditions, and on use as an adjuvant intended to improve responses to vaccines. Trials have reported mixed results, and regulatory status differs sharply between countries; in some places it is a prescription product, while elsewhere it is sold without an approved therapeutic indication. Because published studies vary widely in design, population, and endpoints, comparisons across them are difficult and no single conclusion covers the whole literature.
==== HKUST-1 ==== HKUST-1 consists of a dimeric Cu-paddlewheel that possesses two pore types. Under pelletization MOFs such as HKUST-1 exhibit a pore collapse. Although most carboxylate MOFs have a negative thermal expansion (they densify during heating), it was found that the hardness and Young's moduli unexpectedly decrease with increasing temperature from disordering of linkers. It was also found computationally that a more mesoporous structure has a lower bulk modulus. However, an increased bulk modulus was observed in systems with a few large mesopores versus many small mesopores even though both pore size distributions had the same total pore volume. The HKUST-1 shows a similar, "hyperfilling" phenomenon to the ZIF structures under hydrostatic loading.
=== Colon Treaty of Peace and Friendship === On August 26, 1876, the Grand Lodge of Colon in Santiago de Cuba declared itself entirely independent as a sovereign Masonic Body with its own full and unlimited powers over its own subordinate lodges. Under their auspices, the Grand Lodge of Colon possessed 36 lodges and 8,000 members. On November 24, 1876, the Grand Lodge of Colon and the Supreme Council of Colon signed the Tratado de Paz y Amistad (English: Treaty of Peace and Friendship). This treaty was based in the agreements of the Lausanne Congress. It degraded the superior prestige of the higher degrees, eliminated authoritarian positions at the Supreme Council, ejected the Spanish aristocracy from holding undue power, and erased the mystical positions. The Supreme Council of Colon recognized the Grand Lodge of Colon as "regular and correct," and also recognized their authority over the three degrees of the Blue Lodge. The Grand Lodge recognized the Supreme Council as the authority over the 4th to 33rd degrees.
=== India and Ayurveda === Ayurveda is ancient traditional Indian treatment almost universally incorporated alongside Western medicine as a typical component of medical treatment in India. Although Ayurvedic medicine is often effective, doses can be inconsistent, and may sometimes be contaminated with toxic heavy metals. Some brief examples to follow: Termite is said to cure a variety of diseases, both specific and vague. Typically the mound or a portion of the mound is dug up and the termites and the architectural components of the mound are together ground into a paste which is then applied topically to the affected areas or, more rarely, mixed with water and consumed. This treatment was said to cure ulcers, rheumatic diseases, and anemia. It was also suggested to be a general pain reliever and health improver. The Jatropha Leaf Miner, a lepidopteran which feeds preferentially on Jatropha, is an example of a major insect agricultural pest which is also a medicinal remedy. The larvae, which are also the form of the insect with the greatest economic impact on agriculture, are harvested, boiled, and mashed into a paste which is administered topically and is said to induce lactation, reduce fever, and soothe gastrointestinal tracts.
== Affected drugs == Researchers have identified over 85 drugs with which grapefruit reacts adversely. According to a review done by the Canadian Medical Association, there is an increase in the number of potential drugs that can interact with grapefruit juice, and of the number of fruit types that can interact with those drugs. From 2008 to 2012, the number of drugs known to potentially interact with grapefruit, with risk of harmful or even dangerous effects (gastrointestinal bleeding, nephrotoxicity), increased from 17 to 43.
Tertiary structure refers to the three-dimensional structure created by a single protein molecule (a single polypeptide chain). It may include one or several domains. The α-helices and β-pleated-sheets are folded into a compact globular structure. The folding is driven by the non-specific hydrophobic interactions, the burial of hydrophobic residues from water, but the structure is stable only when the parts of a protein domain are locked into place by specific tertiary interactions, such as salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and the tight packing of side chains and disulfide bonds. The disulfide bonds are extremely rare in cytosolic proteins, since the cytosol (intracellular fluid) is generally a reducing environment.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== 1950s–1960s === Bodybuilding became more popular in the 1950s and 1960s with the emergence of strength and gymnastics champions, and the simultaneous popularization of bodybuilding magazines, training principles, nutrition for bulking up and cutting down, the use of protein and other food supplements, and the opportunity to enter physique contests. The number of bodybuilding organizations grew, and most notably the International Federation of Bodybuilders (IFBB) was founded in 1946 by Canadian brothers Joe and Ben Weider. Other bodybuilding organizations included the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU), National Amateur Bodybuilding Association (NABBA), and the World Bodybuilding Guild (WBBG). Consequently, the contests grew both in number and in size. Besides the many "Mr. XXX" (insert town, city, state, or region) championships, the most prestigious titles were Mr. America, Mr. World, Mr. Universe, Mr. Galaxy, and ultimately Mr. Olympia, which was started in 1965 by the IFBB and is now considered the most important bodybuilding competition in the world. During the 1950s, the most successful and most famous competing bodybuilders were Bill Pearl, Reg Park, Leroy Colbert, and Clarence Ross. Certain bodybuilders rose to fame thanks to the relatively new medium of television, as well as cinema. The most notable were Jack LaLanne, Steve Reeves, Reg Park, and Mickey Hargitay.
Frequent lineup changes followed through the rest of the 1970s, and the band broke up in 1982 with Simmons the only constant member having appeared on all of their albums. In 1987, the Doobie Brothers reformed with Johnston back in the fold. McDonald, who made several guest appearances after their reformation, returned full-time in 2019. The group's sixteen studio albums include six top-ten appearances on the Billboard 200 album chart. Their 1978 album Minute by Minute reached number one for five weeks, and won a Grammy for Best Pop Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group. Their song "What a Fool Believes" from that album, written by McDonald and Kenny Loggins, won two Grammys, including Song of the Year and Record of the Year. The band had 16 Billboard Hot 100 top-40 hits, including "Listen to the Music", "Jesus Is Just Alright", "Long Train Runnin'", "China Grove", "Black Water" (#1 in 1974), "Takin' It to the Streets", "What a Fool Believes" (#1 in 1979), and "The Doctor", all of which receive rotation on classic hits radio stations. They have also released six live albums and numerous greatest hits compilations, including 1976's Best of the Doobies, certified diamond by the RIAA for reaching album sales of ten million copies. The Doobie Brothers were inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2004, and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020. The group has sold more than 40 million records worldwide.
=== Toxicity of sulfur compounds === When sulfur burns in air, it produces sulfur dioxide. In water, this gas produces sulfurous acid and sulfites; sulfites are antioxidants that inhibit growth of aerobic bacteria and a useful food additive in small amounts. At high concentrations these acids harm the lungs, eyes, or other tissues. In organisms without lungs such as insects, sulfite in high concentration prevents respiration. Sulfur trioxide (made by catalysis from sulfur dioxide) and sulfuric acid are similarly highly acidic and corrosive in the presence of water. Concentrated sulfuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent that can strip available water molecules and water components from sugar and organic tissue. The burning of coal and/or petroleum by industry and power plants generates sulfur dioxide (SO2) that reacts with atmospheric water and oxygen to produce sulfurous acid (H2SO3). These acids are components of acid rain, lowering the pH of soil and freshwater bodies, sometimes resulting in substantial damage to the environment and chemical weathering of statues and structures. Fuel standards increasingly require that fuel producers extract sulfur from fossil fuels to prevent acid rain formation. This extracted and refined sulfur represents a large portion of sulfur production. In coal-fired power plants, flue gases are sometimes purified. More modern power plants that use synthesis gas extract the sulfur before they burn the gas.
Most of the Afghan population was already going hungry at the time of the attacks. In the aftermath of the attacks, tens of thousands of people attempted to flee Afghanistan due to the possibility of military retaliation by the U.S. and Pakistan, already home to many Afghan refugees from previous conflicts, closed its border with Afghanistan on September 17, 2001. Thousands of Afghans also fled to the frontier with Tajikistan but were denied entry. The Taliban leaders in Afghanistan pleaded against military action, saying "We appeal to the United States not to put Afghanistan into more misery because our people have suffered so much", referring to two decades of conflict and the humanitarian crisis attached to it. All United Nations expatriates had left Afghanistan after the attacks and no national or international aid workers were at their post. Workers were instead preparing in bordering countries like Pakistan, China and Uzbekistan to prevent a potential "humanitarian catastrophe", amid a critically low food stock for the Afghan population. The World Food Programme stopped importing wheat to Afghanistan on September 12 due to security risks.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In September 2015, Jim Reid announced that the band were recording their first studio album since 1998. The album titled Damage and Joy was produced by Youth and released on 24 March 2017. On 24 August 2017, Bobby Gillespie joined the band on drums for three Psychocandy songs during their performance at Vilar de Mouros Festival in Portugal. In autumn 2018, they opened for Nine Inch Nails' "Cold and Black and Infinite" North American tour. The band announced a Darklands tour of Europe in March and April 2020, which was ultimately postponed to November and December 2021. In June 2021, the band sued Warner Music Group for control of their debut album, Psychocandy, and later albums, and seeking $2.55 million in damages. Under Section 203 of the United States' Copyright Act of 1976, artists may reclaim the rights to their recordings after 35 years, provided that they serve timely and proper notice upon the current record label. The case was settled out of court in March 2023 On 29 November 2023, the band released "Jamcod", the lead single from their eighth album, Glasgow Eyes, which was released on 22 March 2024. On 24 September 2026, the band was announced as a headliner for Something In The way festival 2027
The black neon tetra (Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi) is a freshwater fish of the characin family (Characidae) of the order Characiformes. It is native to the Paraguay basin of southern Brazil. They are often found in the aquarium trade, and a feral population has been established in the rio Paraíba do Sul basin due to the trade.
== Function == The GLP2 receptor (GLP2R) is a G protein-coupled receptor superfamily member closely related to the glucagon receptor (GLP1 receptor). Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP2) is a 33-amino acid proglucagon-derived peptide produced by intestinal enteroendocrine cells. Like glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP1) and glucagon itself, it is derived from the proglucagon peptide encoded by the GCG gene. GLP2 stimulates intestinal growth and upregulates villus height in the small intestine, concomitant with increased crypt cell proliferation and decreased enterocyte apoptosis. Moreover, GLP2 prevents intestinal hypoplasia resulting from total parenteral nutrition. GLP2R, a G protein-coupled receptor superfamily member is expressed in the gut and closely related to the glucagon receptor (GCGR) and the receptor for GLP1 (GLP1R).
=== Lymphatic drainage === Approximately 75% of the lymph from the breast travels to the axillary lymph nodes on the same side of the body, while 25% of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone). A small amount of remaining lymph travels to the other breast and to the abdominal lymph nodes. The subareolar region has a lymphatic plexus known as the "subareolar plexus of Sappey". The axillary lymph nodes include the pectoral (chest), subscapular (under the scapula), and humeral (humerus-bone area) lymph-node groups, which drain to the central axillary lymph nodes and to the apical axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is especially relevant to oncology because breast cancer is common to the mammary gland, and cancer cells can metastasize (break away) from a tumor and be dispersed to other parts of the body by means of the lymphatic system.
Ultrapure water (UPW), high-purity water or highly purified water (HPW) is water that has been purified to stringent specifications. Ultrapure water is a term commonly used in manufacturing to emphasize the fact that the water is treated to the highest levels of purity for all contaminant types, including organic and inorganic compounds, dissolved and particulate matter, and dissolved gases, as well as volatile and non-volatile compounds, reactive and inert compounds, and hydrophilic and hydrophobic compounds. In contrast to deionized (DI) water, UPW has organic particles and dissolved gases removed in addition to ions. Ultrapure water is typically prepared in three broadly-defined stages: pretreatment, primary treatment, and polishing/transport. While various industries use the term "ultrapure water", the exact definitions differ among industries. Standards for ultrapure water are defined by various groups for the power industry, semiconductor industry, and pharmaceutical industry. Water purity requirements of the semiconductor industry are generally the most stringent to prevent circuit faults at the nanometer scale.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
它不是经典的内分泌激素，而是一种免疫调节肽。其作用主要通过局部免疫细胞间的信号传递实现，而非经血液循环作用于远隔器官。
天然胸腺素α1主要从胸腺组织提取，也可在脾脏和淋巴结中检出。目前研究和临床使用的多为化学合成版本，不再依赖动物组织。
胸腺素组分5是牛胸腺提取物的粗组分，包含多种肽。胸腺素α1是其中一种被纯化和表征的单一肽，具有明确的28个氨基酸序列。
It is a chain of 28 amino acids, with an acetyl group attached to the first serine residue. The synthetic version replicates this sequence. Its molecular mass is about 3,108 daltons.